Lao Tzu and Gandhi on Self transcendence for Peace and Human Development

- By Dr. K. Manjusree Naidu* and Dr. Varalakshmi M.^#

Abstract

The human learning process is dialectical; a process where opinions, preconceived and static notions get transformed into pure ideas and values to make people wise; to reach the stage of sublime; a state of bliss and peace that is devoid of negations and conflicts. Philosophically speaking this is an intelligible process. But empirically speaking to attain this state of peace; devoid of conflicts is only possible for a very few people. While the ultimate goal of philosophy is the liberation of the soul which is often understood in metaphysical realms, there is also another way of understanding the self; through understanding of one’s self in relation with others; ultimately trying to make one’s existence a purposeful and a harmonious relation with one and all. According to Lao Tzu an ancient Chinese philosopher, there are paradoxes, contradictions and negations in nature and persons we perceive, and ideas we form. To overcome these contradictions and to understand reality, Lao Tzu insists that a person has to place oneself to the last, and to Gandhi similarly, a person should be reduced to zero or nothingness. This is the stage, where all contradictions are stripped off and the self is clear to self and resultantly not only does a person feel the self-transcendence, tranquillity or peace at himself but also he can communicate the world ably and live harmoniously in it. Thus, to both these philosophers, self-transcendence is not a detachment with the social world; rather it is a life lived amicably and nonviolently. Thus “Tao-The-Ching” for Lao Tzu is the classic way of life lived with virtue; a way to understand nature and world; and to live happily and also self-sufficiently. Similarly to Gandhi “ahimsa” (nonviolence) is a comprehensive virtue to help humans to be free of conflicts. The philosophies of Lao Tzu and Gandhi were popular not only in their times; but even today are gaining significance. Lao Tzu’s concepts are used in management schools to better human relations and productivity; Gandhi’s works are translated into world languages and his precepts, satya and ahimsa are taught to students of China at school level. It is in this context, the present paper discusses their philosophical precepts – “Tao” and “ahimsa” as social virtues to resolve conflicts; to help human development and peace.

While Mahatma Gandhi is the father of the Nation of India Lao-Tzu is the inspirer, teacher and founder of many ancient Chinese philosophies like Confucianism in China and other schools of thought. Richard Gregg (1935) a popular Western scholar who had thorough respect for Eastern philosophical wisdom, compared these two thinkers, opined that though the nonviolent tradition was conceived by many thinkers like, Lao-tzu, Buddha, the Jain Tirthankaras, St. Francis of Assisi, George Fox, Henry David Thoreau, Leo Tolstoy and many others, it is Gandhi who was the outstanding person in modern times to work out in difficult situations and for mass application (p.42). Further, Gregg felt that due to “the dense population and prolonged ages of intense social experience” “India, China and other Asian civilizations” “have brought about an insight and realization of psychological validity of nonviolent resistance” (p.65). What is this psychological validity embedded in the philosophies of Lao Tzu and Gandhi? Does it really help to formulate a better personality that helps human lives and human development?

Lao Tzu and Gandhi expressed unique characteristics of human beings. In ancient times people conducted themselves out of fear for nature and in modern times people are abiding by the laws of society due to fear from the authority and to have security for their livelihood and sustenance. But there is an inner conscience and an external cosmic order that impact in some humans to behave in fair manner always. These two thinkers studied human nature in different dimensions and tried to show how human transcendence is possible in life. These thinkers hardly touch on religion in terms of rituals. To both these persons of the eastern part of the world, the way of life; a life lived without contradictions and above all with peace is significant. How do we acquire such a life free from contradictions and conflicts? Today we are living in a more scientifically and technically advanced world – an automated world; more so a world devoid of moral imperatives within the family level itself. Then, how far do the words and ways of life taught by these renowned philosophers apply to present-day times? This paper looks into these aspects. This paper initiates its discussion with a brief note on self-transcendence as a theoretical base for further discussion on the relevance of doctrines and postulates of Lao Tzu and Gandhi for self-transcendence and thereby human development and peace.

I. Self-transcendence

Human beings are not simply biological beings; they are also emotional, rational, intellectual, potential and moral or spiritual beings. We may not know whether a person has all these traits from birth or not. But certainly, he can transcend from one plane to another due to increasing cognitive knowledge of the world. Self-transcendence means the identification of one’s being or existence with one purpose or with something that one aspires to see himself or herself. It is an advancement of self primarily in thinking and achieving it by personal efforts and practices. Self-transcendence is generally understood in two terms: metaphysical and physical. It is metaphysical in a religious sense and it is physical in a social sense. Yet, subtly speaking, these two terms are treated as single experiences by many religious people; sages, philosophers, and social workers through their identification of self with God and fellow beings alike.

The term transcendence of self is understood in its relation with the universal consciousness or divine or Brahman or Father or Creator of the universe or whatever name is given to this consciousness that is within and without. Mostly this is the essence of all religions. Self-liberation or self-identification is the metaphysics of religions. People become saints or sages and at times live away from normal human life and their association at a personal level, seeking liberation of self.

Another way of identification of a self is through making use of the supra sense of cognition in identifying the self with fellow human beings in their pleasures and pains. In fact, religion too is to be understood in two senses: one to perform religious rituals and meditate upon universal consciousness to be one with God. And, the other sense is, one has to be in this world and be kind with other fellow beings and with ecological nature to live a harmonious life. Hence Upanishadic perception says, “Know the soul as the rider, the body as the chariot and the intellect as the charioteer and the mind as the reins” (Chaitanya, 1977, p.9). Knowing of self is thus conducting one’s self and experiencing the knowledge of self. Bhagavadgita deals with the application of this knowledge in social life: “The Karma-Yogi is not content with insulated experience even if they be of the most beatific kind. In programming his life and action in the light of the deepest voice of his conscience, he is trying to transform the City of Man into a Rama Rajya, which has no denominational connotation whatever but is the equivalent of the Rajyam Samariddham of the Gita and the Civitas Dei or City of God of St. Augustine” (Chaitanya, 1977, p.8).

Understanding of self in metaphysical terms might also lead to confusion due to the existence of different religions and their theories about such transcendental experiences. On the other hand, we have science that which is dated and known as modern science which is contributing to technology and positively facilitating the lives of humans. Yet, based on its need for experimental verification to evaluate religious experiences and moral values it is accepting only the experiences of modern sciences. Thus present life is not only full of individuals who are professionally excellent and knowledgeable but also are norm-free for their lives are comforted due to the application of science and technology to their lives. But is this an end of life? Is it a complete life? This seems to be a philosophical question. But today we have an ecological problem too and deprivation in various ways; of food, shelter and clothing and degradation in natural resources. Perhaps we have rooted these problems in degradation in human nature itself which is not originally bad and only self-centred.

Many theories have been in use on self-transcendence in the fields of philosophy and psychology and religion. Abraham Maslow a psychologist attempted to bridge the gap between sciences and society, and, religion and knowledge of self by explaining self-transcendence in social and normative tones. And it is his way of explaining self-transcendence that may stand as a theoretical base for further discussion on the philosophies of Lao Tzu and Gandhi.

Abraham Maslow’s humanistic psychology1 and his theory of motivation argue that the human self actualizes after passing through various levels of satisfaction of needs; physiological needs as hunger, thirst; and satisfaction of safety and emotional needs. However, a potential self identifies itself with social and economic statuses at times without identifying his natural interests like arts, music and any other interest that pleases one’s mind. But some people identify their natural interests at a very young age and excel in their fields and lead satisfied lives for their self is actualized according to their natural interests. While some others late in their life identify these unfulfilled interests and try to please their interest in their little best. Both these people lead a fulfilled life and then through such fulfillment also become philosophical and moral and lead an axiological life at least from one point in time in their life. These tend to be healthy, witty and also helpful to others and sensitive to others’ problems. Maslow names these people as speakers. And, contrary to this, people who do not identify their natural interests or who have not gratified their needs and who have not fulfilled their esteem needs may tend to be dissatisfied and unhealthy physically and psychologically. Thus Maslow’s theory of self-actualization became popular in the field of management to motivate people to use their potential self to achieve higher social and economic status and increase the productivity of an organization too. But what is missing is a further application of Maslow’s theory. For, Maslow talked about another part of self when a human self identifies his self with others’ problems and pains. To such people gratification or satisfaction of their biological, emotional, or potential self are not important, rather they are more sensitive to the life situations of others and their deprivation and suffering. Such people are “non-peakers” according to Maslow. Maslow assumed that mesomorphs, social workers and crusaders come under the category of non-peakers. In fact, Maslow was fascinated by these self-scarifying people and who come to the “aid of the downtrodden or the unjustly treated” at the cost of their lives. He was questioning what produces in some people the socially desirable characteristics of kindness, social conscience, helpfulness, neighborliness, identification, tolerance, desire for justice and righteous indignation (Maslow, 1954, p. 234).

Maslow assumes that if many people partake in other’s critical conditions at least after fulfilling their needs the world looks better and happier. To Maslow, human transcendence leads to human development and happiness and peace. From establishing a theory for good human psyche Maslow further aimed at “a normative social psychology” that “accepts the search for values as one of the essential and feasible tasks of science and society” (Maslow,1968, p.220).

It is in this backdrop Lao Tzu’s and Gandhi’s philosophies are under discussion in view of their identification of self and the world. Gandhi and Lao Tzu can be named as mesomorphs as Maslow named. For, these thinkers contributed to a humanistic way of understanding of self, nature and the world. Their normative precepts need special attention to help not only with day-to-day transactions and resolving conflicts at the interpersonal level but also to arrive at peace and development in larger societies.

II. Lao Tzu’s and Gandhi’s perceptions of man and world

A comparative process helps the identification of one’s similar ideas with others. It also gives a willing space to allow new and productive ideas for furtherance of persons and institutions. Lao Tzu’s and Gandhi’s ideas can be discussed here at three levels: philosophical; social and political, and, at a therapeutic level. Though we study these aspects differently these do not appear so in the words of Lao Tzu and Gandhi; rather philosophy became a way of life to these wise men through their sensible cognition, sensitive reflections of the world and further self-therapeutic training which spiritualized their bodies and minds and their entire being. Their experiences together are gifted to us as sanctified knowledge or wisdom of age-old culture and classic tradition to be followed if one, as a person or a nation, has an inclination to it.

Philosophy of Lao Tzu and Gandhi

Lao Tzu was considered an ancient Chinese philosopher. The word Lao Tzu or Laozi connotes “Old (lao) Master (zi). While some scholars considered his existence during the sixth century C.E. to some others there was no historical Laozi. However, Chinese literature accorded a short book called Daodejung, (Tao-Te Ching) as written by Laozi. This was translated into English as “Classic of the Way and Virtue” that influenced Chinese culture very well. Taoism or Daoism which was named after Lao Tzu’s philosophy was also treated as one of the major pillars of Chinese thought along with Confucianism and Buddhism. His thought, it is said, played a significant role not only in the area of philosophy but also in literature, painting, martial arts and other cultural traditions. Karl Jaspers treated him as an “axial” philosopher (1974, cited, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Though Tao is translated as “the way” it refers to the order, and balance of nature or the universe and according to Lao Tzu the way is known through intuition and simplicity; through a life lived with “love, respect and non-action (wei-wu-wei: action through inaction) as we understand through various source on Lao Tzu’s philosophy (Winter 2007 and Hundoble).

A discussion here on Lao Tzu’s is based on referring to Tao-Te-Ching in its English translation (Kline, 2003, and Derek Lin, 2006). However, there are available several other translations. Tao Te-Ching consists of eighty chapters; each with only a few verses. What is specific of Lao Tzu’s work is, it is not simply a narration and admiration of nature and the world; rather it appears, that he was trying to look at the world and its processes as a dialectical process: initially he states of the reality, later contradictions and ultimately knowing its true nature through an introspection and identification by the viewer of the world with the world:

The way – cannot be told.
The name – cannot be named.
The nameless is the way of Heaven and Earth.
The named is the Matrix of the Myriad creatures.
Eliminate desire to find the way.
Embrace desire to know the creature.
The two are identical,
But differ in name as they arise,
Identical they are called mysterious,
Mystery of mystery,
The gate of all secrets (Chapter I: 1)

This verse though looks simple, conveys his perceptions of the world in various dimensions: it is mystical and philosophical for it is in communion with some divinity. Such an understanding of the world through conscious identification of self with others in a particular sense and with the world in a general sense and forgetting how each individual “differ in name as they arise” is the life of a sage, according to Lao Tzu. But what is the empirical relevance of such an understanding? Lao Tzu holds that it is hard to define “good” and “bad” because it is hard to differentiate these two qualities of things and people. That means the “good” hitherto be treated as good be known how good it is only when we practice it; so also we come to know that the “bad” is not actually that “bad” as we perceive so: “Thus being and non-being produce each other” and thus he asserts: “High and low bring about each other” (Chapter 2).

How do we know the reality of the world? Is it through meditation in a void or through contemplation with the world? Does Lao Tzu have something as ideal in the world? Though it is difficult for anybody to say of reality, for Lao Tzu the world is real and mystic in one sense and in another sense it is relative and changing. This is so not because of our changing identities but due to that reason that sometimes ‘truth’ needs to be viewed in the contextual sense. Truth becomes contextual when it is applied to the empirical world and to understand fellow human beings by one’s self in a particular situation, and truth is mystical when the idea of reality or nature is understood in terms of divinity and metaphysics. At the same time, truth becomes an ideal to test oneself with existing morality. Thus Lao Tzu’s idea of reality is mystical and metaphysical when he said, “The Tao is empty” and at the same time, it is “so deep” and “the source of all things” and that which “unravels the knots” and is known through wise men through “non-action” (Chapter 4). It is known for sages for they are virtuous. A sage is one who places himself in the end but is remembered forever due to his natural goodness:

Heaven and Earth are everlasting
The reason Heaven and Earth can last forever is that
They do not exist for themselves
Thus they can last forever
Therefore Sages:
Place themselves last but end up in front
Are outside of themselves and yet survive
Is it not due to their selflessness?
That is how they can achieve their own goals (Chapter 7).

The highest virtue or goodness is again compared with nature which treats everybody alike despite their external attributes or inner qualities; it is like water that “stays in places that people dislike” (Chapter 8). Lao Tzu’s thought is thus, though not explicitly, is implicitly normative to see the world in a better way. He appreciates that which is simple and just. He is against qualities like greed and cunningness. He is against the acquisition of riches and social positions that make the persons arrogant. Wealth creates thieves and disasters to the possessors in the words of Lao Tzu (Chapter 9). In praise of virtue and despise of vice Lao Tzu held:

There is no crime greater than greed
No disaster than discontentment
No fault greater than avarice
Thus the satisfaction of contentment
Is the lasting satisfaction (Chapter 46).

The Tao the way is known according to Lao Tzu when one knows that one has to carry soul or spiritual body in his head in a steadfast manner. One which is divine is impartial; hence Tao is the inner nature of human beings and the practice of virtue that is explicit. How does a person know of self? How we perceive ourselves is important to Lao Tzu. Lao Tzu insists us to question ourselves before we search for our being and what we identify it. He asks a few basic questions as to whether one is as innocent as an infant in focusing energy and reaching relaxation; one can rule the nation or office without manipulation and whether one can be in one social position and yet not be arrogant and feel supremacy(Chapter 10). Thus, introspection is the beginning of growth and development and sages are such people who know of all the contradictions of human society: rich and poor; beauty and ugly; success and failure and thus these qualities make no difference to Sages:

“...You will return to infancy
Know the bright
But keep to the shadows,

Know the glorious
But keep to the humble

Then constant virtue will be complete
And you will return to the un-carved block.
The un-carved block is cut into
‘Vessels’.
Wise men use them, as rulers of ‘vessels’
The great cutter
Does not cut away” (Chapter 28).

A study on Gandhi too depicts that Gandhi was reading the world through a study of his own self and thereby deriving certain universal values. Anybody’s autobiography shows nothing but the story of self told aloud. Gandhi’s autobiography was not only differently named as An Autobiography or the story of my experiment with truth (1927) but was a distinct way of his search for eternal principles that rule human life and human societies. Gandhi as a staunch believer in religion could easily be liberated his self while he was practicing his first lesson of ahimsa in South Africa. But he aimed at emancipation of the world through a vision. Gandhi aimed at peace which is not free of conflict alone but at such “positive peace” that “includes longer term goal” as peace “as an end”; “as inner peace and cosmic unity with large whole and as a prescriptive and as guiding principle” as Michael Allen Fox defined it (2014, p.193). Thus Gandhi arrived at the guiding principles of life as truth or satya and nonviolence or ahimsa, while satya is the ultimate principle or being of things and world, ahimsa is the way to reach it. Gandhi could not find a better way than the way of ahimsa to reach satya. While detailing of this being or universal consciousnesses, Prof. K Ramakrishna Rao says that it is “the spiritual side of the person” and this “functions at three different levels – physical (instinct and emotion), mental (reason), and spiritual (altruism)” (2011, p.6). In Gandhi this is spirituality applied:

“Gandhi’s practical spiritualism starts with an ideal that would be an instance where the dichotomies like the individual and society can be related not as parts of a whole but as reflexive of each other”(Rao, 2011, p.77).

Gandhi’s philosophy is a philosophy in action with a belief in faith in God or truth. In fact truth and God are alterable terms. Initially he conceived the idea of God as truth. But later he said “Truth is God”. The idea of God may be elusive to us but to Gandhi idea of truth is cognizable, practical, rational and humanistic that makes one nearer to God. It is ahimsa the best way to reach God and that brings humans closer and closer. This is the crux of Gandhi’s philosophy that we relate to his ideas on social and political arenas of human lives.

Social and Political Ideas of Gandhi and Lao Tzu

Though Gandhi’s philosophy is much applauded for his nonviolent way of resolving conflicts from his South African times in the case of indentured Indians, till freedom movement in India, Gandhi’s ideas of nonviolence and truth are not being practiced by people of India in the sense as Gandhi practiced. Some people those who, with all the ardent endurance practiced nonviolence to achieve freedom, too, did not understand Gandhi’s philosophy of nonviolence in the way Gandhi wanted. Subsequently, Gandhi’s satyagraha a nonviolent method to resolve any conflict was treated as a political technique only. Hence social and political areas remained free of philosophy. But to Gandhi nonviolence is a pervasive spirit which should be practiced by all the people all the time. Hence it is not only the rational and tactical Gandhi that we have to understand but also the philosophical Gandhi who aimed at peace as a regulative principle ruling the minds of people all over the world through the moral precepts satya and ahimsa. As we find in Lao Tzu’s philosophy a sage is conscious of all contradictions of nature – good and bad, ugly and beauty and yet wants to know the Tao the way through virtue which is beyond these contradictions, Gandhi too wants to see through the application of nonviolence a virtuous behaviour in humans. Ahimsa is not just passive resistance rather it is for Gandhi, in its negative form is “not injuring any living being, whether by body or mind” and in its positive form it is “the greatest love, the greatest charity” and if it is “truly understood”, is “a panacea for all evils mundane and extra-mundane”. When somebody raised a doubt whether due to the practice of ahimsa, one becomes potentially weak Gandhi said: “it doeds not mean helping the evil-doer to continue the wrong or tolerating it by passive acquiescence” (CWMG 18: 195). Further “a non-violent rebellion is not a programme of seizure of power, it is a programme of transformation of the relationship ending in a peaceful transfer of power” (CWMG 77:267).

Similarly Lao Tzu says about three of his practical virtues:

I have three treasures
I hold on to them and protect them
The first is called compassion
The second is called conservation [it is also translated as moderation]
The third is called not daring (rash) to be ahead in the world [nonviolent] (Chapter 67)

We find nonviolence or ahimsa as basis of all virtues and as a way in both the philosophies of Gandhi and Lao Tzu not only to know the mystic nature of world but more in its social application. And this is the basis of their idea of autonomous and self reliant states. Gandhi’s concepts of swaraj and swadeshi have roots in philosophical concepts as dharma and swadharma. For, dharma for Gandhi is self-purification (Iyer, 1990). At the same time we find how swadharma as a counterpart of dharma the universal principle when Gandhi said:

“One’s respective dharma towards one’s self, family, nation and the world cannot be divided into watertight compartments. The harm done to oneself or one’s family cannot bring about the good of the nation. … one cannot benefit the nation by being against the world at large, …Where the heart is pure, from moment to moment one’s duty becomes apparent effortlessly”(A letter of Gandhi, August 14, 1932, Mahadevbhaini Dairy, vol.II, p.15, cited, Iyer, p. 183).

Swaadeshi, following dharma is to Gandhi, “to discharge” one’s “legitimate obligation” towards family by “just means” and also according to the “universal Code of Conduct”. For, Gandshi says further, if through practice of swadeshi, one harms others, it is not swadeshi but egotism (Gandhi cited. Iyer, 1990, p.372). Then swaraj or self-rule of Gandhi is through liberation of self; it is not anarchy but a regulation of self first and its application in the political state. Though we understood virtue as self-sacrifice in both these philosophers it does not mean degradation of self or submission to slavery. Such submission is injurious to the individual. Hence Gandhi says that “my conception of freedom is no narrow conception. It is co-extensive with the freedom of man in all his majesty” (Gandhi, cited, Prabhu and Rao, 1967, p. 312). Gandhi meant freedom of individuals to utilize their fullest talents for self but at the same time not for self only but also for the “social structure” “on whose surface one lives”(Gandhi, cited. Prabhu and Rao, p.312).

Lao Tzu was considered as the first libertarian as well as nonviolent warrior and an advocate of self reliant states. He said: “Small country few people” [states small in size] and accepts for possession of weapons by people but not the use of those. Further he aims at people to be content with their homes, their clothes, food and customs (Chapter, 80). Thus he despises centralized states where people starve due to heavy taxes levied by rulers (Chapter, 75). People are to be ruled without military coercion. Ruling is to be done according to the Tao the natural way and that pleases people. A commander, who is arrogant and who achieves result by power and against Tao (nature) soon ends according to Lao Tzu (Chapter 30). Further to Lao Tzu a military rule is a misfortune to state; even if such a rule is victorious it is a victory that is without glory (Chapter 31). He further states:

“Those who glorify
Are delighting in the killing
Those who delight in killing
Cannot achieve their ambitions upon the world...

And, it is the real state which is upright in integrity. But it is that country which becomes chaotic when more laws are imposed; where people have more weapons and where people are more impoverished. Hence Lao Tzu dreams of such state as the best when there is less interference of state with the lives of people (Chapter 57) and in such state people live simple and honest lives; contrary to this, “Goodness reverts to wickedness” (Chapter 58).

Further, Lao Tzu is convinced in the humility as virtue when generals are not formidable and soldiers are not angry. He added: “those who are good at managing people lower themselves” and he calls this position as “the virtue of non-contention” (Chapter 68). And it is an ideal state:

When people no longer fear force
They bring about greater force
Do not limit their place
Do not reject their livelihood
Because the ruler does not reject them
Therefore they do not reject the ruler (Chapter 72).

Still further, we find similar views on war between Gandhi and Lao Tzu. To cite certain instances, Gandhi when asked to show some historical evidence that his “soul-force” or “truth-force” that governed the universe he replied:

“History as we know it, is a record of the wars of the world, and so there is a proverb among Englishmen that a nation which has no history, that is no wars, is a happy nation. How kings played, how they became enemies of one another, how they murdered one another, is found accurately recorded in history, and if this were all that had happened in the world, it would have been ended long ago. If the story of the universe had commenced with wars, not a man would have been found alive today” (CWMG 10: 47).

He added:

The fact that there are so many men still alive in the world shows that it is not based on the force of arms but on the force of truth or love” (CWMG 10:48)

Gandhi’s ideas on achieving peace were experimented and were proven as successful. But times have been changed. Can we apply these today too? Let us relook into this. Lao Tzu too expresses similar humility on the face of war and conflict to win over through violent attitudes. As we go through further, we find nonviolent action is not mere tolerance but an un-severing effort to change the violent oppressor to be nonviolent. The process is dialectical that starts with the assumption that humans are not born divine and nonviolent. As we all know people do not be aggressive or angry and violent readily but behave so in order to save their goods, positions and at times for honors they crave for their existential life. At the same time we also feel that we can control violent attitude and behave composed all through our lives. Hence, Maslow may be right when he said:

“This inner nature, as much as we know of it so far, seems not to be intrinsically or primarily or necessarily evil. The basic needs (for life, for safety, and security, for belongingness and affection, for respect and self-respect and for self-actualization), the basic human emotions and the basic human capacities are on their face neutral, pre-moral or positively “good”. Destructiveness, sadism, cruelty, malice, etc., seem to be violent reactions against frustration of our intrinsic needs, emotions and capacities” (Maslow, 1968, p.3).

Maslow expected good societies through his normative social psychology. But Gandhi had gone farther; he not only analyzed the human nature but even transformed the violent persons and nations to be nonviolent. To know the process of conversion we have to seek to Gandhi’s words again: “One can realize Truth and ahimsa only by ceaseless striving” but only coming “out of this mortal frame” (CWMG 44: 57). Ahimsa answers not only for issues as war and amassed violence; it deals primarily with the personal transformation of a person who claims himself as votary of ahimsa:

“Wars in a large measure are fought for economic issues. If we give up selfishness and resolve to take the barest minimum for the satisfaction of our wants, there will be no occasion for wars. Unless there is a complete transformation in our economy and our style of life, peace will elude us, however hard we may strive for it (CWMG 90: 184).

Hence it is a conscious effort that brings peace of people and states. Gandhi’s ahimsa works at various levels and helps resolve conflicts and reconstruct even the damaged human societies. Gandhi’s peace restoration mechanisms can be many: at emotional level through positive transformation of the other person, at rational level going through truth factors and at religious level by application of love and fraternity; at economic level through sharing through concepts as trusteeship and sarvodaya. Trusteeship of Gandhi is based on non possession. Gandhi’s idea of social transformation is through moral transformation. Gandhi felt that it is a [moral] burden to carry that material possession that is due to others (Gandhi cited, Prabhu and Rao, 1967, p.187). His idea of “non-possession is a principle applicable to a thought as well as things” (Gandhi, cited, Iyer, 1993, p.378). This is again based on a “golden rule” that is, “to refuse to have what the million cannot” (Gandhi, cited, Prabhu and Rao, 1967, p.191). Gandhi says that, though it was painful even for him in the beginning to renounce the thing belongs to him, he felt, the “positive joy” of non-possession that gradually took a “geometric progression”. Gandhi was convinced of that “if each retained of possession of only what they needed, no one would be in want, and all would live in contentment”(Gandhi, cited, Prabhu and Rao, 1967, p.187). To rich he says, “Earn your crores by all means. But understand that your wealth is not yours; it belongs to the people. Take what you require for your legitimate needs, and use the remainder for society” (Gandhi cited, Prabhu and Rao, 1967, p.193). Further he rests the responsibility of trusteeship on the economically well off people.

Gandhi’s economic equality is to abolish the “eternal conflict between capital and labour”; the contrast between “few rich in whose hands is concentrated the bulk of nation’s wealth” and “the semi-starved naked millions”. To Gandhi “trustee” is one who takes for himself that is enough to satisfy the needs that are “customary in his society and spends the rest for social service” (Gandhi, cited, Iyer, 1991, p.404). Further to Gandhi, if capital is power, so also work. Either capitalist or worker is dependent on the other. Hence worker is a co-sharer in the capital. The moment the worker realizes this there is an inevitable destruction. Gandhi calls this destruction of capitalist as the destruction of worker. To resist this state he lays the down responsibility of community welfare in the hands of capitalists:

“I am inviting those people who consider themselves as owners today act as trustees, i.e., owners, not in their own right, but owners in the right of those whom they have exploited”( Gandhi, cited, Prabhu and Rao 1967, p.258).

Gandhi evolves a socialistic state; at the same time his notion of state is not just utilitarian that aims at greatest happiness or good to the greatest number; rather his idea of state is founded by such individuals who are greater than utilitarian. For, an utilitarian is only logical and thus does not sacrifice himself in order to fulfil his goal according to Gandhi. But a votary of sarvodaya is an absolutist who will even sacrifice himself (Gandhi in Sarvodaya). Socialism is primarily for Gandhi through minimizing one’s needs; whatever earned should be earned with the utmost honesty: “Even a single individual enforces this ideal in his life, he is bound to influence others” (Gandhi, cited, Iyer, 1993, p.408).

Further, to Gandhi the word socialism is not only a beautiful word conceptually where “all the members of society are equal – none low, none high” (Gandhi, cited. Iyer, 1993, p. 411), but also a realizable precept that encompasses individuals, societies and transnational states:

“If we erase the ‘I’s and the ‘Mine’s from religion, politics and economics, etc. we shall soon be free and bring heaven upon earth” (Gandhi, cited. Iyer, 1993, p. 414).

Philosophies of Lao Tzu and Gandhi, based on the mystic view of nature through an introspection of self and, sensitive responses to the deprived, paved the roads for freedom, democracy and social development. Apart from the relevance of these ideas therapeutic relevance is a value addition to their philosophies.

Therapeutic application:

Lao Tzu’s philosophy was originally advocated by three sects that have trained their students in wise use of natural energy or Tao they call it. These schools are: philosophical school, meditative and adept school and religious school. The philosophical school believes that Lao Tzu wanted that people should return to the original condition of nature which was energetic, through wise use of energy and conservation of energy. Thus they gain personal tranquillity (Chang). The adepts’ aim is to increase the allotment of space for the energy. It is through meditation the person is in direct view of the sources of their awareness. This inner self would allow people for the exploration for new vista of life. The last sect of religion established priesthood to perform rituals to Gods and deities. But more than performing and worshiping, this school focuses on helping ordinary people like villagers to make available the cosmic energy. It is said that magic is key to religious schools. Furthermore it is the disc (see figure 1) that depicts two types of energies Yin and Yang that help one to make wise use of energy and the way to explore to balance the natural energy which is in the individual too (Smith 1994, cited, Hundoble).

Similarly to Gandhi nonviolence and its practice is not limited to one particular person who practices it. It is an education and training to cure the practitioner and people around. It can be practiced by any ordinary person according to Gandhi. It makes human to cease be brutal: “Though we have human form, without the attainment of non-violence we still share the qualities of our remote reputed ancestor, the orang-outang”(CWMG 67: 414). While the sword force is brute force, nonviolent force is in form of “soul force” and “truth force” that helps people to behave moderately, rationally and non-violently. It helps self-control and controls retaliating and violent attitudes for, Gandhi believed that “restraint is the law of our being” (CWMG 23:24). And “Ahimsa is not impotence. Ahimsa is nor powerlessness. Ahimsa is unconquerable power” – reasserts Gandhi (CWMG 32:380). Practice of ahimsa can be an yogic practice that can transform others; even a single individual who advocates and practices ahimsa according to Gandhi. Further he said: “I assume that you wish to cultivate ahimsa, and therefore even if it was an act of violence, you will try and learn ahimsa from it” (CWMG 84:296). Thinkers like Gregg opined that the conflict between a violent and nonviolent person is like a martial art jiu-jitsu which he later called as moral jiu-jitsu where the violent oppressor will get astonished by the virtuous and voluntary suffering of a nonviolent opponent for the sake of a belief and for an ideal. Gregg further said that violent person would tend to change himself gradually and turn up with the new found ideas through nonviolence that allow him to listen to the others and to get feasible compromises and other alternative mechanism to war and violence that were hitherto convinced him in a different way (Gregg, 1935, p.52).

Lao Tzu’s philosophy is being applied in later schools in the health psychology as healing technique through wise use of natural energy or Taichi energy(Smith 1994, cited, Hundoble). It is represented in form of a disc called Taichi disc (see figure 1) that depicts two types of energies Yin and Yang that help one to make wise use of energy and the way to explore to balance the natural energy which is in the individual too . Positive energy is represented in white colour and negative energy in dark colour. And, the small and contrasting coloured dots in each area of the circle (please see the dots in the middle circle) represent that in all evil there exists some good and in all the good there exists some evil. This circle also represents that there exist contradictions in nature; dark and bright, night and day, dry and moist, sun and rain – some attributes we give to nature and aggressive and passive qualities to nature and human beings. The first picture of the disc represents the conflicting situation and conflicting forces of self. This sort of state slows down the system. The second picture shows the balancing attitudes and situation of two opposite forces working for harmony. And the third picture shows a state of energy in opposite direction. It is an artificial harmony or apparent functional relations; unity shown here too is an apparent one. This way of looking at nature and human beings helps to resolve contradictions and to live harmoniously is the belief of Taoists.

III. Recent Application of Ideas of Lao Tzu and Gandhi and Conclusions

It is interesting to find recent applications of the unique ideas of Lao Tzu and Gandhi that stand set examples for the discussions carried so far. A study on the meaning of suffering conducted by Siroj Sorajjakool2(2008) within the backdrop of western existential philosophical theories of Sartre, Heidegger, Tillich and eastern philosophy of Lao Tzu and Chang Tzu shows that Sorajjakool was more fascinated to find the views of Lao Tzu when he used the metaphor of water to life. While Lao Tzu said in the world there is nothing submissive and weak than water and yet the strength of water is known only when it is exhibited Sorajjakool held that he sensed from his own life how he was trying to control and conquer “flow of life” too. Observing his own life experiences and further theoretical studies he sensed that even in the most depressant time one can find “something enticing and mystical about life”. This is an example as to how we can advance through a positive perception of self.

Further we find that, more or less based on with similar assumptions as above, one can advance even in the most critical situations from a study on Pamela Reed’s Theory of Self Transcendence by Jon Lafleur and others (2011). Reed’s theory was applied to know:

• how the theory of self transcendence is reflected in their research,
• whether persons with late Alzheimer’s disease show evidence of self transcendence during the creative bonding intervention, and to know and that
• whether persons with late stage Alzheimer’s disease show evidence of well-being during the creative bonding intervention.

The above study came out with interesting results that contribute for theoretical base on the study of self transcendence for their study was of good use and their study provided for insights for new areas of education for involvement of nursing staff. Further the research recommended the use of nursing to promote well being of people. Its further implications found that nursing can help manage self transcendence to encourage patients’ reflections through meditation, prayer and journaling and also through fostering meaningful relationships with community relations, support groups and group counselling. Thus the theory of Self transcendence had shown its practical implications.

As to application of Gandhi’s ideas, there were a number of theoretical interpretations on Gandhi by thinkers all over the world recommending in the areas of education, economics and rural development. But recently Gene Sharp3 a sociologist who was influenced by Gandhi while he was doing his post graduation, worked on Gandhi’s concept of nonviolent technique to resolve conflict. In course of time he improvised his idea of nonviolent revolution and influenced through his works on nonviolence to dethrone dictatorial governments and to establish democracies in Serbia, Egypt and other places of the world.

A Cultural Fusion of India – China: Through revisiting Lao Tzu and Gandhi:

Gandhi’s ideas are gaining significance in China in recent times. Prof. Shang Quanyu of South China’s Normal University’s school of foreign studies is currently doing research on the relevance of Gandhi’s philosophy of nonviolence, social harmony, and environmental protection to today’s China. In view of a growing culture of consumerism, a concomitant of the rising affluence which is not conducive to the general wellbeing, China is importing India’s soft power; the adaptation of yoga and Gandhian ideology to meet peaceful development. It is said that Gandhi’s philosophy of renunciation and simple living may well be part of China. Shang further in his speech at Gateway House on March 13, 2013, expressed his hope that problem of over consumption may be effectively addressed through China’s strategy to promote minimalist policy (Modi, 2013). Prof. Shang translated former Indian diplomat – P.A. Nazareth’s Gandhi’s Outstanding Leadership (2006) in to Chinese language; also expressed his happiness for the way Gandhian ideas of nonviolence, from primary school children to university students, are part of curriculum today in China (The Hindu, March 8, 2013).

Conclusion

As we find from our discussions, the spiritual side of any religion has morality too apart from its ritualistic aspects relevant to particular religion. On the other hand we have Maslow’s theory that postulates that human transcendence leads to normative social psychology. Thus spirituality is also morality that is the resultant of highly conceived and defined religion or psychology. The following are the outcomes of the study that affirm the relevant social and moral aspects of Lao Tzu and Gandhi to help human development and peace:

• To philosophize people to be altruistic, truthful and helpful for they know the truth of a person, situation and that which is good for all.
• For self counseling and counseling others to behave in right direction to know one’s potentiality that which is good for him and to others. To help distress by use of yin –yang disc at organizational level and thus to be optimistic and realistic to aim at feasible goals.
• Has a therapeutic use through creative bonding with children; aged; patients; youth and distressed others in need to advance themselves in their adverse situations.
• Their philosophies help to learn to be nonviolent.
• Nonviolent aptitude through practice of Tao-yoga or Indian yoga had an impacting influence on those who practice them and also those who are around the practitioners.
• Ahimsa and Tao are certainly alternative ways and energies to free of a conflicting attitude within a person and to promote harmony and peace between people, and people and nations.
• Their philosophies certainly help ecological balance. This is possible because virtuous people who are free of vices like greed, hatred, violence and discontentment practice moderation in consuming resources ; also help others to cultivate good qualities like love, compassion and nonviolent attitude; contentment and tranquility.

In both the philosophers, Lao Tzu and Gandhi, it is through a dialectical process the human contradictions are overcome and a transformation is a possible phenomenon. As said at the outset, human beings are not perfect beings by birth; at the same time they are not vicious beings. Both nature and all beings possess some energy that can be used constructively or destructively. How best we can make use of this energy, needs cognition, education and training of a self to transcend from lower plane to higher and higher planes of life. Perhaps we have learnt certain guidelines through the humanistic and normative social psychology of Maslow and particularly his theory of motivation and self transcendence as basis; from Tao-Te-ching the classic way and virtue of Lao Tzu and from principles of truth (sat or being) the aim, and nonviolence or ahimsa the way, of Gandhi, to help ourselves and our societies.

Notes:

1. Abraham H, Maslow calls his psychology as humanistic psychology for it is established as a “third alternative to objectivistic, behaviouristic (mechanomorphic) psychology”. To him this psychology is not purely descriptive or academic but suggests actions and implies consequences to help and to generate ways of life. It is a psychology that deals with how the person understands the way of life to help “his own private psyche”; also be as a social being and as a member of society. He aspires that ultimately the best helper is only “the good person”. Hence this third psychology he calls is now as one facet of a general Weltanschauung (Maslow, 1968, Preface to the Second Edition, p.iii).
2. Siroj Sorajjakool is a Professor of Religion, Psychology and Counselling. His book Wu Wei, Negativity and Depression (New York: Haworth Press, 2001) is a study of his own experience with depression that lead to discover issues and discovery of Taoist wisdom that is outlined in his book (Editor’s note to his article in Hakomi Forum).
3. Prof. Gene Sharp, a social scientist of our times, is a staunch believer in democracy and human freedom. He is a Nobel Peace prize nominee (2009, 20012 and 2013) and a Right livelihood awardee. He is the one who propagated nonviolent resolution to attain political freedom from dictatorial governments. As an young student he wrote his M.A. thesis, Nonviolence: A Sociological Study (1951), a study on the methods of nonviolence. Sharp’s seminal work Gandhi Wields the Weapon of Moral power in 1960; other early works, Gandhi faces the Storm (1961) and “The Meaning of Nonviolence”(1967), depict Sharp’s understanding of Gandhi and praise of Gandhi for his moral primacy for conflict resolution. He founded the Albert Einstein Institution in 1983 which is a non-profit organization to advance the use of nonviolent action in conflicts. Since fifty years he was doing research on nonviolence. Recently a documentary film, How to Start a Revolution based on the use of Sharp’s nonviolent techniques for recent successful nonviolent revolutions, was awarded as a best documentary at the Rain dance independent film festival in London (Gray, 2011).

References:

1. Chaitanya, K. (1977). Gandhi’s Quest of Being in Becoming. New Delhi: Gandhi Peace foundation
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5. Gray, Louise (2011). How to Start a Revolution? In Telegraph, 21 October, 2011.
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14. Modi, R. (13, March, 2013). The Relevance of Gandhi in China Today. Shang Quanyu’s conversation with Rajni Bakshi, Gandhi Peace Fellow at Gate Way House. Published by Gate Way House: Indian Council on Global Relations
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Note: Manjushree Naidu K., and Varalakshmi, M., Lao Tzu and Gandhi on Self transcendence for Peace and Human Development was first published in India and China Relations: Historical, cultural and Security Issues,. J. Reddy (Ed.), ISBN, No: 978-81-926904-8-3, pp. 75-101(2016).